JEWISH ENVIRONMENTAL
PERSPECTIVES
PERSPECTIVES
Judaism's Approach to Environmental Quality
Yehudah Leo Levi
Halakhah and Agada / Man as
Administrator / �Do Not Destroy� / Limiting Personal
Consumption / Damages to Neighbors / Conclusions
Photograph from Judaism and the Environment
Those of us who are concerned about the slow destruction of our environment tend to turn to the legislative approach. On careful analysis, however, this, by itself, is far from being a panacea.1 It seems evident that the main key to the solution must be sought in the value system to which the individual subscribes. The definition of this value system and making it part of the mental makeup of society is the basic problem here. There are two approaches to finding the solution to this challenge: omphaloskepsis (contemplating one's navel -- i.e., introspection) and surveying the available literature for traditional solutions. When using this latter approach, Judaism -- a culture originating three and a half millennia ago -- would hardly seem to be a likely candidate for providing solutions to so modern a problem, but such a perception is misleading.
Those of us who are concerned about the slow destruction of our environment tend to turn to the legislative approach. On careful analysis, however, this, by itself, is far from being a panacea.1 It seems evident that the main key to the solution must be sought in the value system to which the individual subscribes. The definition of this value system and making it part of the mental makeup of society is the basic problem here. There are two approaches to finding the solution to this challenge: omphaloskepsis (contemplating one's navel -- i.e., introspection) and surveying the available literature for traditional solutions. When using this latter approach, Judaism -- a culture originating three and a half millennia ago -- would hardly seem to be a likely candidate for providing solutions to so modern a problem, but such a perception is misleading.
Halakhah and Agada
Before investigating this
issue, we must explain the basic structure of the Torah, the repository of
Judaic culture. The teachings of the Torah take two forms, termed agada and halakhah,respectively.
Agada consists of basic ideas
and principles which are occasionally formulated as such, and at other times
are taught in the form of metaphors and parables, or as narratives of past
events. Their function is to guide the student through life's challenges
cognitively. In any given situation, a person is to evaluate his or her options
rationally in terms of the guidelines given in theagada.
Halakhah, on the other hand,
consists of well-defined instructions of what is to be done, and what actions
are prohibited under the given circumstances. Knowing the reasons for the
commandment is not relevant to its fulfillment. Halakhah is a
strictly behaviorist system, designed to shape the personality via conduct.
It seems reasonable to claim
that the amazing longevity and success of Judaism is due to the combination of
these two systems, designed to develop -- to the extent that they are followed
-- an individual who is fit to be a positive member of mankind, in general, and
of the Jewish nation, in particular.
There are Jews who see their
tradition essentially in terms of agada; they feel that halakhic regulations
are not necessary. However, experience has shown that such Judaism cannot last.
There are others, primarily
in the so-called "ultra-Orthodox" circles, who concentrate their
efforts and studies on halakhah, paying scant attention to the
agadic elements; these, too, are bound to fail in their Judaism. Only the
proper combination of the two components leads to success.
The importance of agada is
readily demonstrated by such talmudic statements as the declaration that
Jerusalem was destroyed because its inhabitants were not prepared to go beyond
the letter of the law (lifnim mishurat hadin).2 This makes it clear
that agadic principles are to guide our conduct beyond mere halakhic obligations.3
Man
as Administrator
Judaism strives to inculcate
certain personality traits in its adherents. Two of these, in particular, are
essential for the protection of the environment: concern for the environment on
the part of the individual and a willingness to restrict one's consumption.
First and foremost, Judaism
teaches that man has been put into this world not as an absolute master, but
rather as an administrator acting on behalf of the Creator. God's first act
after creating man is stated as follows: "The Lord God took the man and
put him into the Garden of Eden to work it and guard it."4 This makes clear that
Adam's task in the garden was not to enjoy its fruit -- although that was
certainly an accompanying fact -- but rather to administer it, to take care of
it.
The talmudic sages make this
explicit. When Scripture commands us "You shall walk after the Lord your
God," they ask whether it is really possible to walk after God, Who is
compared to a consuming fire.5 They explain the intent of the verse as
follows: right after the creation of the world, "God occupied Himself
first of all only with planting [the Garden of Eden]. Thus you too when you
enter the Land, should occupy yourself, first of all, with planting." The
Prophet Isaiah also alluded to this concept when he said: "He did not
create [the earth] in vain; He formed it to be inhabited."6
Perhaps the most explicit,
and at the same time the sternest, declaration of human responsibility for the
management of the earth is the midrashic statement: "When God created the
first man, he took him around to all the trees in the Garden of Eden and said
to him, 'See my handiwork, how beautiful and choice they are....[B]e careful
not to ruin and destroy my world, for if you do ruin it, there is no one to
repair it after you.'"7
One nineteenth-century
commentator goes so far as to state "Then man became a worker of the earth
(i.e., a farmer), and thereby the purpose of creation was fulfilled."8
Now to some talmudic stories
illustrating the responsibility of the individual toward the environment:
Once upon a time, a farmer was
clearing his field, throwing rocks from his field onto the neighboring highway.
A pious man passing by reprimanded him: "Fool! Why do you throw rocks from
property which is not yours into your own property." The farmer scoffed at
these words. Some time later, he had to sell his field. One night, when passing
by his former field, he stumbled and fell over one of the rocks he had thrown
there. Lying there in agony, he realized how true had been the words of the
pious man.9
Here is another story that
brings home our obligation toward the coming generations:
The pious Choni HaMe'agel was
walking on the road. He saw a man planting a carob tree. He asked the man,
"How long until this tree will produce fruit?" He answered that it
will take seventy years. Choni asked him, "Are you sure that you'll still
be around in seventy years?" The man replied, "Just as my fathers
planted for me, so will I plant for my children."10
We have here a clear
statement of the responsibility of the individual for his environment as a
fundamental principle in Judaism. This principle, however, would remain just
that, with little impact on people's conduct, if it were not for halakhah, a
system of strict regulations guiding the Jew's conduct. As noted, halakhah uses
the behaviorist approach to shape our personalities and is absolutely necessary
if the lofty, but poorly defined, ideals are to be translated into reality.
By way of illustrating the halakhic approach
to imbue the individual with a sense of responsibility toward the environment,
we take the laws prohibiting wanton destruction -- bal tashchit.
"Do
Not Destroy"
The commandment "do not
destroy"11 can be seen as a direct
outgrowth of our custodianship of the world. First and foremost, it means that
we should be aware of the ownership rights of the Master of the Universe by
showing respect for anything of value in His world. Here we bring the words of
Rabbi S.R. Hirsch, the rabbi who was a pioneer in utilizing the opportunities
brought by the emancipation of Jews in nineteenth-century Germany to integrate
with Jewish tradition whatever is positive in modern culture.
"Do not destroy
anything!" is the first and most general call of God, which comes to you,
man....If you should regard the beings beneath you as being objects without
rights, not perceiving God Who created them...you have no right to the things
around you....As soon as you use them unwisely, you commit treachery against My
world, you commit murder and robbery against My property....With this call He
represents the greatest and the smallest against you and grants the greatest
and the smallest a right against your presumptuousness.12
Any wanton destruction,
whether through disdain or frivolity, is damage to God's property. If the
damage is done in anger, it is considered the first step in rebellion against
God: "One who tears his clothes, breaks a vessel, or scatters his money in
anger, should be in your eyes as an idolater."13
The destruction of fruit
trees is explicitly forbidden by Scripture.14 This is brought in the context of the
siege of a city, where the trees are the enemy's property -- in other words, a
setting in which we would expect the Torah to waive such fine considerations as
the "sanctity" of plant life. After all, human life is in danger! Yet
despite this, if it is feasible to use timber (non-fruit-bearing) trees for the
siege, we are forbidden to destroy fruit trees. God Himself set an example by
instructing us to build the Temple only with wood from timber trees.15
From the explicit prohibition
against the destruction of fruit trees, our Sages deduced that it is all the
more forbidden to destroy the fruits themselves.16 Destruction of food,
particularly disrespectful handling of bread, man's principal food,17 also shows ingratitude
toward God, Who sustains us with bread.
In fact, according to halakhah, any
usable item is covered by this prohibition. "One who breaks vessels, tears
clothing, demolishes a building, stops up a well, or wastes food in a
destructive fashion, transgresses the prohibition of 'Do not destroy.'"18 (The broadening of the
prohibition appears to stem directly from the words of the Torah, and is not
merely a rabbinic enactment.19) Even the use of fuel is to be based on
maximum efficiency. According to the words of our Sages in the Talmud, one who
uses an oil lamp covered, consumes fuel wastefully and transgresses the
prohibition "Do not destroy"; presumably the increased temperature
speeds up fuel consumption. Similarly is anyone lighting a lamp with naphtha
without covering it, evidently because of the increased evaporation of the
fuel.20 Thus, the talmudic
sages anticipated today's energy conservation campaigns by millennia.
Unlike many other
commandments, the prohibition "Do not destroy" applies also to
indirect actions. For example, one may not divert a stream if, as a result,
fruit trees will wither.21 (Still, the tree owner is not obligated to maintain
the tree by watering it and otherwise caring for it.22) It should be noted that
"Do not destroy" applies even to ownerless property,23 so that it covers
pollution of the atmosphere, lakes, oceans, aquifers, and so on.
One of the treasures the
world provides us with, is beauty; it, too, should be preserved. Although the
Torah did not explicitly command to protect beauty, it did give us a hint that
this is the will of God. The ceiling of the Tabernacle was made of artistically
woven curtains of blue, purple, and scarlet thread; the Torah required that
these curtains be covered by a protective layer of hides. "The Torah
taught us derekh eretz (ways of the world), that one should
care for beautiful things."24
Our most precious material
gift of all, the human body, also needs care and cultivation -- not for its own
sake, but to keep it ready and fit to serve us at all times. It, too, is
included in the mitzvah "Do not destroy." The extent of the Torah's
concern for this aspect is highlighted in the Talmud's question: by what right
does a Jew eat wheat bread, when barley bread is much cheaper and one can
subsist on it? The answer: "Not destroying one's body is more important
[and wheat is more healthful]."25 It is interesting to note the ruling of a
later halakhic authority that one who overeats transgresses
the prohibition "Do not destroy" twice -- he wastes the food and also
harms his body.26
Marring the landscape, even
if not included in the prohibition "Do not destroy" from the halakhic standpoint,
is clearly against the spirit of the Torah, which puts heavy emphasis on city
planning.27
Careful attention to the
mitzvah "Do not destroy," together with the general principles
previously mentioned, foster in a Jew a special appreciation for all of
creation, animate and inanimate; he will come to see each creature as a partner
in the service of God Who created us all.
Limiting
Personal Consumption
Having discussed at length
the importance of concern for the environment, we are ready to note that the
ecological problem has another source. Two hundred years ago, economist Thomas
Malthus published a thesis according to which mankind has a built-in time bomb
ticking away inside it. The world's population multiplies at an ever-increasing
rate, with which the rate of food production cannot possibly keep up. Although
his thesis is rational, it is highly misleading. More recent research has found
that this is not the primary problem at all.
A factor of considerably
greater importance is average individual consumption, which is increasing at a
much faster rate than that of population growth, as indicated by the following
figures: In the course of thirty years, the world's population doubled, while
energy consumption per capita increased eightfold in this period. We may add to
this the fact that in North America and Western Europe, 10 percent of the
world's population consumes 50 percent of the world's energy.
At this point, then, the real
danger to the world lies in this excessive consumption. Not only does excessive
energy consumption deplete the world's energy store, it also is the chief cause
of the greenhouse effect, causing a potentially dangerous warming of the
atmosphere.
This over-consumption is also
manifest in our use of raw materials. It can even be found in our dietary
habits. Note that the production of one kilogram of beef consumes sixteen
kilograms of grain.28 People are well aware
of this; the problem is that they are not prepared to act accordingly.
All this shows that the root
of the problem lies in a selfish worldview that inflates personal consumption
far beyond the essential. In a population motivated by this view, each
individual strives to expand his sphere of control as much as possible.
Collision, conflict, and the resultant waste are inevitable.
Regarding this problem, too,
the Torah provides a solution. The approach is essentially to replace our
naturally self-centered attitude with a more altruistic or idealistic one. By
adopting a goal beyond ourselves, our consumption will be guided by our real
needs rather than by our desires.
The most explicit and general
Torah statement in this direction is the scriptural commandment "be
dedicated"29 or, in other words,
refrain from self-indulgence and luxuries.30 The Hebrew word here is kadosh (usually
translated as "holy"), which signifies dedication to an ideal. In
explaining the significance of this commandment, Ramban points out that,
without it, a person could indulge his basest desires and coarsest lusts
without transgressing any other Torah precept. Were it not for this
commandment, a person could be depraved with a "license of the
Torah"!
Elsewhere,31 Ramban points out that
the commandment "You shall do that which is fair and good in God's
eyes" serves a similar function in the interpersonal sphere. We dare not be
satisfied fulfilling the explicit regulations given in the Torah, but rather
must see before our eyes the ideal of a harmonious society which is "fair
and good in God's eyes."32 The Talmud blames the destruction of
Jerusalem on the neglect of this rule.33 The well-known commandment "Love
your neighbor as yourself"34 is, according to the talmudic sage,
Hillel, the whole of Torah, with all else merely a commentary.35 It, too, militates
against the self-centered orientation.
"Noble ideas," you
may say, "but how are they to be implemented?" I have been told of a
government official, very concerned about the environment and instrumental in
obstructing a number of industrial developments for ecological reasons. But
when he wanted to get a pack of cigarettes, he would jump into his car and
drive down the block to buy it. How can these ideals be made part of daily
conduct?
The answer lies in halakhah.
Halakhah is a body of strict, detailed demands which the Torah places
upon the Jew. Halakhah is not interested in the individual's
worldview, and the demands of halakhah are not affected by
such things. On the contrary, by guiding one's actions and thereby molding
one's character, halakhah supports agada --
the ideology -- enabling it to develop man's worldview and, hence, again, his
conduct.
In our context, halakhic dietary
restrictions are a good example of how halakhah inculcates
self-control and regulation of appetite. By way of illustration, let us take
the halakhot of shechitah(slaughter of an animal).
Here the law requires the use of an extremely sharp knife, totally free of
nicks. Shechitah is performed on the animal's throat by means
of a single cut, severing esophagus, windpipe, and the blood vessels supplying
the animal's brain. Because of the sharpness of the knife, it is reasonable to
assume that the animal will hardly feel the cut itself -- and seconds later the
brain has been drained of blood, so that sensation is no longer possible.
Thus, halakhah avoids
the possible development of cruelty in the slaughterer. In the words of the
talmudic sages: "Does it then matter to God whether one slaughters from
the front of the neck or from the back (which is a far more painful process)?
We may conclude that the commandments were given only to refine people."36
On the interpersonal level,
let us illustrate the halakhic approach to educating the
individual to concern and care for the feeling of others by means of the laws
concerning "damages to the neighbors."
Damages
to Neighbors
In the commandment to
"love your fellow as yourself,"37 the Torah has given us a principle which
is indeed great,38 but which would remain
a mere utopia were it not anchored in halakhah.One of the halakhic areas
which educates us to love our fellow and to be concerned for his welfare is
that of "damages to neighbors." This is a broad topic, which also has
a significant influence on the ecology.
The Torah deals at length
with owners' responsibility for damages caused by their possessions, at times
even if caused only indirectly and also if caused by an object which
technically they did not own.
In the case of an inanimate
object, such damages are classified as "damages caused by a pit." The
responsibility rests with the person who dug or uncovered the pit in the public
domain.39In this category are damages
caused by a banana peel thrown in the street, or dangerous waste material
disposed of in the public domain. When the object is transported by natural
forces, such as the wind, it is in the category of "fire,"40 which includes damage
caused by pollution of air or waterways.
Surprisingly, we are
cautioned against causing the loss of benefit to another, even if he has no
legal claim to it.41 The principle that
"one should not drain the water of his well when others need it" is
found in the Mishnah.42 A Jew is even commanded
to prevent damage threatening his neighbor from an outside force.43
The sages of the Talmud
expanded these rules also to psychological disturbances, such as possible
exposure to a neighbor's observation, noises, and so on. Anyone suffering such
annoyances may appeal to the courts to force his neighbor to remove them. This
may include the removal of the cause of the noise, although the noise is only
indirectly due to it,44 and even if its removal
will cause the owner financial hardship. Based on these rules, Ryvash45 drafted the guiding
principle: "One may not protect his own property from damage at the
expense of his fellow's damage."46 This principle could serve as a guideline
in modern legislation for pollution control.
Four particular nuisances are
especially liable to legal action according to Jewish law: smoke, sewage odors,
dust and similar aerosols, and vibrations.47 Even if consent had initially been given,
the offended neighbor can retract it. All of these are forms of pollution which
are a source of great concern to this day. In particular, halakhah limits
the proximity to the city of certain industrial processes, to prevent air
pollution within the city. Included are threshing floors (because of the
chaff), processing of carcasses, tanneries (because of the smell), and furnaces
(because of the smoke).48 Tanneries are specifically limited to the areas east
of the city, in consideration of the prevalent wind patterns in the Land of
Israel.49
We have already mentioned the
value the Torah places on beauty. It is obvious, then, that mere aesthetic
damage such as littering in public places is also included in the prohibition
against causing damage -- if not according to the letter of halakhah, then
according to its spirit. We find at least one example of such legislation:
furnaces were forbidden in Jerusalem because the smoke blackened the walls of
the houses, "and this is a disgrace."50
All the above is only a small
sampling from over one hundred paragraphs in the Shulchan Arukh51 which deal with damages
caused to neighbors, most of them environmental. One who studies and applies
these laws in daily life becomes considerate and sensitive, and will not make
light of harming the environment. Such an individual will beware of causing
damage in general, and ecological damage in particular. Above all, concern for
the environment will restrict the individual's own consumption.
Conclusions
We assume that the resolution
of the ecological threat faced by our generation must involve an appropriate
shaping of society's attitudes. Based on this assumption, we showed that the
Judaic tradition has much to teach us in this context. It is designed to imbue
its adherents with a sense of responsibility for the state of the environment.
In addition, it strives to limit the individual's consumption to the level
required for efficient functioning, eliminating excessive consumption.
This is accomplished, on the
cognitive level, by the formulation of rational ideals, rounded out with
illustrative stories. These ideas, in conjunction with the above-mentioned
obligation to go beyond the letter of the law, can make substantial
contributions to the protection of the environment. The implementation of these
ideals is reinforced and substantially strengthened byhalakhic regulations,
which also serve to mold the personality behavioristically.
* *
*
Notes
BT/JT � Babylonian/Jerusalem Talmud
MR � Midrash Rabbah
MT � Mishneh Torah of Rambam
MR � Midrash Rabbah
MT � Mishneh Torah of Rambam
1. Cf. M. Gerstenfeld, Environment and Confusion: An Introduction to a Messy Subject (Jerusalem: Academon, 1994).
2. BT Bava Metzi'a 30b.
3. For an extensive discussion of this and other non-halakhic obligations, see the author's Facing Current Challenges (Brooklyn: Hemed, 1998); Essay 57.
4. Genesis 2:15.
5. Deuteronomy 4:24.
6. Isaiah 45:18.
7. MR Kohelet 7:13.
8. R. N.Tz.Y. Berlin on Genesis 2:4. R. Berlin was the final dean of the Talmudic Academy of Volozhin (1803-1892), the prototype of the modern large yeshiva.
9. BT Bava Kama 50b.
10. BT Ta'anit 23a.
11. Deuteronomy 20:19.
12. Rabbi S.R. Hirsch, Horeb (London: Soncino Press, 1962), chap. 56 (#397) from BT Shabbath 105b.
13. Ibid., #398.
14. Deuteronomy 20:19.
15. Exodus 26:15; MR Exodus 35:2.
16. Sifrey, Deuteronomy #203.
17. Leviticus 26:26; Isaiah 3:1.
18. MT Melakhim 6:10 and note 21, below.
19. Sedey Chemed, Kelalim, Beith #17; Peiath HaSadeh, ibid. #47.
20. BT Shabbat 67b.
21. Sifrey, Deuteronomy #203.
22. Chazon Ish on MT Melakhim 6:8.
23. Shulchan 'Arukh HaRav, Shemirat HaGuf WeHaNe-fesh, chap. 14.
24. Rashi, Exodus 26:13; Yalkut Shim'oni #422.
25. BT Shabbat 129a and 140b.
26. Orach Meysharim (Mainz, 1878), sec. 29:6. The author, R. Menachem Trevis, lived in nineteenth-century Germany.
27. For an extensive discussion, see the author's Facing Current Challenges, Essay 36.
28. F.M. Lappe, Diet for a Small Planet (New York: Ballentine, 1975), pp. 11, 382.
29. Leviticus 19:2.
30. Sifra, Kedoshim, begin.
31. Deuteronomy 6:18.
32. Facing Current Challenges, Essay 12.
33. BT Bava Metzi'a 30b.
34. Leviticus 19:18.
35. BT Shabbat 30a.
36. MR Genesis 44:1.
37. Leviticus 19:18.
38. JT Nedarim 9:4.
39. Mishnah Bava Kama 1:1 and commentaries ad loc.; ibid., chap. 3.
40. Mishnah Bava Kama 1:1 and commentaries ad loc.
41. BT Yevamot 44a (Mishnah Yevamot 4:11).
42. According to SeMaG (neg. #229) and Meiri (BT Yevamot 44a), the prohibition is based on bal tashchit.
43. BT Bava Metzi'a 31a; Shulchan Arukh, Choshen Mishpat 259:9.
44. BT Bava Bathra 23a; Shulchan Arukh, Choshen Mishpat 155:39.
45. Rabbi Yitzchak ben Sheshet (1326-1408), a major decisor in Spain and North Africa.
46. Responsa RYVaSh #196.
47. Shulchan Arukh, Choshen Mishpat 155:36.
48. M Bava Bathra 2:8-9; Shulchan Arukh, Choshen Mishpat 155:22-23.
49. M Bava Bathra 2:9.
50. Rashi BT Bava Kama 82b.
51. Shulchan Arukh, Choshen Mishpat #153-6.
* *
*
Yehudah (Leo) Levi is past
rector and professor of electro-optics at the Jerusalem College of Technology,
where he also gave courses in Torah thought. In addition to some 140 articles
published in scientific, technical, and Judaica journals, Professor Levi has
published a number of books on optics, as well as halakhah and
Jewish ideology.
Dore Gold and Manfred
Gerstenfeld, Co-Publishers; Mark Ami-El, Managing Editor. Jerusalem Center for
Public Affairs (Registered Amuta), 13 Tel-Hai St., Jerusalem, Israel; Tel.
972-2-5619281, Fax. 972-2-5619112, Email: jcpa@netvision.net.il. In U.S.A.:
Center for Jewish Community Studies, 1515 Locust St., Suite 703, Philadelphia,
PA 19102-3726; Tel. (215) 772-0564, Fax. (215) 772-0566. Website: www.jcpa.org.
��Copyright.
The opinions expressed
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